Skip to main content
Download PDF

Does mental fatigue affect performance in racket sports? A systematic review

BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation volume 16, Article number: 179 (2024) Cite this article

Abstract

Mental fatigue impairs performance across several sports domains. However, a systematic review on its effects on racket sports performance has been lacking due to the previous scarcity of studies. This review aims to provide a comprehensive review the effects of mental fatigue on racket players’ performance, with a discussion of the underlying mechanisms. A thorough search was conducted across five databases, including Web of Science, PubMed, SCOPUS, SPORTDiscus (via EBSCOhost), and the Psychological and Behavioral Science Collection (via EBSCOhost). The PICOS framework established the inclusion criteria: (1) healthy racket sports players; (2) induction of mental fatigue in both field and laboratory settings; (3) comparison of mental fatigue interventions with a control group (e.g., watching a movie or reading a magazine); (4) assessment of performance outcomes, including physical performance, skilled performance, and perceptual-cognitive performance; and (5) randomized controlled trials (RCTs), non-randomized controlled trials (non-RCTs), and non-randomized non-controlled trials. Mental fatigue manipulation, subjective evaluation, and (neuro)physiological markers were synthesized to support the successful induction of mental fatigue. Performance was categorized into tennis, table tennis, badminton, and padel based on the characteristics of specific racket sports domains. Secondary outcomes, such as the rate perception of effort (RPE) and motivation, were synthesized to explain the mechanisms based on the prominent theory of the Psychobiological model of endurance performance. Six studies revealed that mental fatigue impacts stroke performance in table tennis, affecting speed, accuracy, faults, and only second-serve accuracy in tennis. The response time of psychomotor performance increased in table tennis, padel, and badminton. Meanwhile, mental fatigue increased the RPE and remained unchanged in heart rate, blood glucose, and lactate, consistent with the Psychobiological model of endurance performance. Additionally, attention is suggested as a significant underlying psychobiological factor.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Fatigue is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon associated with most acute and chronic illnesses and everyday life [1,2,3]. Peripheral fatigue, stemming from a peripheral standpoint, is commonly characterized as a decrease in the capacity to perform physical work following preceding physical effort induced by skeletal muscle [4]. In contrast, central fatigue, originating from a central perspective, is defined as a reduction in the ability to voluntarily activate muscles [5, 6]. However, recent discussions on fatigue in sports performance have expanded to encompass mental fatigue. Mental fatigue is a psychobiological state induced by prolonged, sustained cognitive tasks, accompanied by subjective feelings of “tiredness” and “lack of energy” [7, 8].

Mental fatigue detrimentally affects cognitive and physical performance in daily life [8]. Its impact on productivity [9] can potentially elevate the risk of traffic accidents [10], leading to significant adverse effects on human well-being [11]. Recently, mental fatigue has garnered attention in a sports context due to its reported impairment of performance. Initially, Marcora et al. observed a decrease in cycling time to exhaustion associated with mental fatigue [12]. Notably, this performance decline was attributed to individuals’ higher perception of effort (RPE) rather than cardiorespiratory and musculoenergetic mechanisms [12]. Following this framework, an increasing number of studies have investigated the influence of mental fatigue on performance in sports domains [13].

Van Cutsem et al. conducted a systematic review on the effects of mental fatigue on physical performance, concluding that mental fatigue impairs endurance performance [8]. They found that maximal strength, power, and anaerobic work remain unaffected [8]. While physical performance lays the groundwork for various sports activities, skilled performance directly influences competition outcomes. Sun et al., in their systematic report on mental fatigue’s impact on skilled performance, observed impairment not only in physical performance but also in skill performance in soccer, basketball, and table tennis [7]. Additionally, Habay et al. systematically synthesized studies on mental fatigue’s effects on sport-specific psychomotor performance (SSPP), noting that mental fatigue negatively affects decision-making, reaction time, and accuracy in SSPP [14].

Racket sports entail the utilization of a hand-held racket to propel a projectile between two or four players, with the objective of positioning the projectile where the opponent cannot successfully return it [15]. Prominent racket sports encompass tennis, badminton, squash, table tennis, and padel [10]. These sports are widely embraced for their accessibility and enjoyable nature, particularly appealing to inexperienced players, and have seen rapid development in sports [15]. However, to excel in racket sports, athletes must exhibit diverse qualities and attributes, employing a multifaceted interplay of technical, tactical, physiological, and psychological skills to attain peak performance [15]. Furthermore, players must concentrate their attention on tracking the ball or shuttlecock’s movement, foreseeing its path, and directing it towards the opponent’s side [16]. This prolonged cognitive involvement is often associated with mental fatigue in racket sports [17, 18].

Previous well-conducted reviews have extensively covered the impact of mental fatigue on various sports performances. However, these reviews have not included the latest studies on mental fatigue in racket sports due to time constraints of publication. In Sun et al.‘s review, only one study [7] by Mansec et al. investigated the effects of mental fatigue on table tennis ball speed and accuracy [19]. To the best of our knowledge, the most relevant study on mental fatigue in racket sports performance is the review by Habay et al., which included three studies examining the effects of mental fatigue on table tennis ball speed and the performance of badminton players [14].

With the increasing number of studies delving into mental fatigue’s impact on racket sports performance, there arises a necessity for a systematic review that encompasses the latest research in this domain. Notably, certain facets of racket sports performance appear unaffected by mental fatigue. For example, Mansec et al.’s study indicated that mental fatigue decreased ball speed and accuracy in table tennis stroke performance [19]. Conversely, Kosack et al. discovered that mental fatigue did not affect specific skills among badminton players [20]. Similarly, Filipas et al. observed that mental fatigue impaired second serve accuracy but did not affect the speed of the first and second serves or the accuracy of the first serve in tennis [21]. These inconsistent findings underscore the necessity of a systematic review on the effects of mental fatigue on racket sports performance. On the other hand, the lack of a systematic review on mental fatigue in racket sports hinders practical understanding for coaches and players regarding the effects of mental fatigue on performance. Additionally, it limits the exploration of strategies to mitigate the performance decline induced by mental fatigue in racket sports.

According to the prominent theory proposed by Marcora et al. in the Psychobiological model of endurance performance, mental fatigue triggers the activation of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), resulting in elevated adenosine levels and decreased dopamine transmission [12]. This increase in adenosine causes mentally fatigued players to perceive effort more intensely, consequently resulting in a decline in subsequent performance [12, 22]. Sun et al. also proposed attention as a significant psychobiological factor affected by mental fatigue and sports performance [23, 24]. Considering the anterior cingulate cortex’s (ACC) crucial role in attention regulation [25], the performance declines caused by mental fatigue may be associated with inadequate allocation of cognitive resources to attention, thus contributing to performance decline [26, 27].

The present review focuses on the effects of mental fatigue on the performance of racket sports. The primary aim is to delineate the effects of mental fatigue on various performance metrics among racket players. The secondary aim is to analyze underlying psychobiological factors, such as RPE, motivation, and attention, based on the Psychobiological model of endurance performance. This analysis aims to shed light on the mechanisms involved in mental fatigue and its potential influence on racket performance.

Methodology

This review adhered to the guidelines outlined in the Updated Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement [28]. The protocol for this review was registered with the International Platform of Registered Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (INPLASY), under registration number ID: 202320017.

Eligibility criteria

This review included peer-reviewed studies in English, with no limitations on publication year; the PICOS framework was used to establish eligibility criteria [29]. The inclusion criteria for this review were as follows: (1) Participants were healthy racket players, with no restrictions on the athlete’s level. (2) Interventions could be conducted in both field and laboratory settings, provided that the studies clearly reported participants being under mental fatigue conditions and utilized subjective evaluations such as the fatigue visual analogue scale (F-VAS) and/or physiological markers like electroencephalography (EEG) to confirm the induction of mental fatigue. Additionally, secondary outcome measures focused on psychobiological markers such as RPE, motivation, and attention, which could elucidate the mechanisms behind mental fatigue and its potential impact on racket sports performance. (3) Comparisons involved participants in no mental fatigue conditions or placebo conditions. (4) Outcomes had to include at least one performance measure, with no restrictions on cognitive, physical, perceptual-cognitive skills, or skill performance. (5) The study design had to consist of peer-reviewed randomized controlled trials (RCTs), non-randomized controlled trials (non-RCTs), and non-randomized non-controlled trials published in reputable scientific journals.

Searching strategy and selection process

A systematic search was conducted on December 28, 2023, to identify studies on the effects of mental fatigue on racket sports performance. This search spanned five databases: Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus (via EBSCOhost), and the Psychological and Behavioral Science Collection (via EBSCOhost). Where applicable, Medical Subject Heading (MeSH) terms were employed, and Boolean operators “AND” and “OR” were utilized across all databases. The detailed search strategy is provided in Table 1. Furthermore, to ensure thorough coverage of relevant studies, the reference lists of the included studies were examined, and a search was conducted on Google Scholar.

Table 1 Number of hits for the complete strategy from difference databases
Full size table

The study selection process is delineated in Fig. 1. After removing duplicates, two independent evaluators (CD and HS) screened studies based on titles and abstracts. Full-text screening was subsequently conducted according to predefined eligibility criteria. Disagreements were resolved through consultation with a third reviewer (KGS) until consensus was achieved.

Data extraction

Two independent reviewers (CD and HS) extracted data relevant to the aims of this review from the included studies, with accuracy validation by a third reviewer (KGS). The extracted information included:

  1. 1.

    First author’s name and publication year.

  2. 2.

    Population characteristics: sample size, age, gender, and athlete level.

  3. 3.

    Intervention details: method of inducing mental fatigue, duration, subjective assessment of mental fatigue, secondary outcomes supporting mental fatigue, and physiological markers.

  4. 4.

    Outcome details: racket sports type, sports measurement domains, and performance outcomes.

Risk of bias assessment

The risk of bias for all included studies was assessed using the Revised Cochrane Risk of Bias (RoB 2.0). The RoB 2.0 is preferred over quality scales due to its greater reliability in assessing bias. This tool evaluate five domains of bias risk, categorizing as ‘low risk of bias’, ‘some concerns’, or ‘high risk of bias risk’ based on the signaling questions. An overall risk of bias was determined for each study. Two independent evaluators (CD and HS) assessed the bias of each included studies following the guideline from the Cochrane community. Any discrepancies were resolved through consultation with a third assessor (KGS), until consensus was reached.

Results

Study selection

A systematic literature search across five databases yielded 433 studies. After removing duplicates, 367 studies remained for further evaluation. Upon reviewing titles and abstracts, 284 studies were deemed inconsistent with the review’s objectives. Subsequently, 83 studies underwent full-text assessment based on predefined criteria. Following meticulous evaluation, 6 studies met all inclusion criteria and were thus included in this review. The selection process was illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Flow diagram of the study selection procedure

Full size image

Risk of bias

Five studies, which maintained research aim naivety among participants and adhered to randomized controlled trial guidelines, were assessed as “low risk” [19, 21, 30,31,32]. These peer-reviewed studies, classified in the low-risk category, investigated the impact of mental fatigue on racket sports performance and yielded compelling results. One study was rated as “some concern” due to insufficient details regarding the randomization process and outcome measurement [20]. While the author did not explicitly outline the randomization procedure, and the outcome measurement did not comprehensively capture badminton performance, the inclusion of countermovement jump and badminton-specific tests are crucial indicators of physical performance in badminton competitions [20, 33, 34]. Specific details are provided in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Risk of bias summary for each included study

Full size image

Population characteristic

A total of 157 participants were included across all studies. Two studies examined male and female players [31, 32], while three focused solely on male players [19,20,21]. One study did not specify the gender of amateur padel players [30]. The age range varied from 18 ± 4 [21] to 28.71 ± 7.68 years old [30], and the participants’ skill levels ranged from amateur [30] to elite [19]. Detailed characteristics of the included studies are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Overview of included publication details
Full size table

Mental fatigue intervention

Five studies employed the Stroop task to induce mental fatigue [20, 21, 30,31,32]. Van Cutsem et al. directed experienced badminton players to complete a 90-minute Stroop task [32]. Similarly, Kosack et al. and Habay et al. instructed badminton and table tennis players to undergo 60-minute Stroop tasks [20, 31]. Díaz-García et al. and Filipas et al. consistently instructed padel and tennis players to engage in 30-minute Stroop tasks [21, 30]. Mensec et al. investigated table tennis players’ exposure to a 90-minute AX-continuous performance test (AX-CPT) [19]. Both the Stroop task and AX-CPT demand cognitive resources, involving sustained attention and response inhibition, which deplete cognitive resources [35]. Typically, sustained cognitive tasks exceeding 30 min successfully induce mental fatigue, with longer durations and inhibition process leading to heightened mental fatigue [7].

Control conditions varied across the studies. Three studies instructed participants to watch emotionally neutral documentaries [20, 31, 32], while one study had participants watch a movie [19]. One study employed easy cognitive tasks of equivalent duration to the mental fatigue intervention group [21].

Mental fatigue manifestation and mechanism factors markers

In six studies, subjective evaluation of mental fatigue was assessed using the mental fatigue Visual Analogy Scale (F-VAS) [19,20,21, 30,31,32], recognized as a reliable measure [35]. All six studies reported a significant increase in F-VAS scores after mental fatigue induction [19,20,21, 30,31,32].

According to the Psychobiological model of endurance performance, RPE and motivation are critical factors influenced by mental fatigue, potentially impacting subsequent performance [12, 22]. Participants experiencing mental fatigue reported increased RPE, corresponding to decreased motivation [12, 22]. Three studies examined the RPE after mental fatigue induction, with two showing higher RPE compared to controls [19, 32]. Interestingly, Kosack et al. found no difference in RPE between conditions [20]. Regarding motivation, three studies investigated this aspect [20, 31, 32]. Van Cutsem et al. and Kosack et al. reported no significant difference in motivation between mental fatigue and control conditions [20, 32], while Habay et al. reported decreased motivation post-fatigue [31].

Physiological markers provide insights into mental fatigue mechanisms. During induction, Van Cutsem et al. monitored heart rate (HR) and blood glucose (BG). HR increased from 72 ± 9 bpm to 77 ± 9 bpm, while BG decreased from 93.8 ± 6.7 mg/dl to 86.6 ± 7.6 mg/dl [32], with no significant difference between groups. Similarly, Kosack et al. found no difference in HR or lactate levels [20]. Habay et al. used EEG and observed decreased α and θ band power post-test, indicating mental fatigue among table tennis players [31].

Racket sports performance outcomes

The performance outcomes for racket players across specific types of racket sports are summarized in Table 2, categorized into table tennis, badminton, padel, and tennis [19,20,21, 30,31,32].

Table tennis

Two studies investigated how mental fatigue affects table tennis performance. Mensec et al. focused on stroke performance, reporting that players experiencing mental fatigue exhibited a decrease in ball speed (-2.2% ± 3.5%), an increase in faults (+ 5.4 ± 6.3%), and a decrease in total score (-6.6 ± 8.9%) compared to controls [19]. Habay et al. explored mental fatigue’s influence on visuomotor tasks and psychomotor performance, finding an increased reaction time (+ 70 ± 7ms) in visuomotor skills among fatigued players [31, 34].

Badminton

Two studies examined the impact of mental fatigue on badminton performance. Van Cutsem et al. investigated badminton players’ reaction time and psychomotor performance, while Kosack et al. focused on physical performance aspects [20, 32]. In terms of perceptual-cognitive performance, badminton players experiencing mental fatigue showed increased reaction times on the Flanker task (p < 0.05) [32]. Additionally, there was an increase in psychomotor performance in visuomotor tasks, with mental fatigue participants reacting significantly slower to complex stimuli, leading to a decreased reaction time of visuomotor performance (1109 ± 251ms) compared to the control group (1299 ± 227ms) [32]. Kosack et al. concentrated on physical performance, specifically on the height of countermovement jump and badminton-specific performance [20]. However, no significant differences were found in countermovement jump height between the mental fatigue condition (0.41 ± 0.07 m) and the control condition (0.40 ± 0.06 m), nor in the duration of badminton-specific performance between the mental fatigue group (32.43 ± 2.36 s) and the control group (32.43 ± 1.96 s) among elite badminton players [20].

Padel

Díaz-García et al. studied the effects of mental fatigue on padel performance, particularly focusing on perceptual-cognitive aspects. Amateur padel players subjected to 30 min of mental fatigue through the Stroop task exhibited significantly slower reaction times on psychomotor vigilance tasks compared to controls (p < 0.001) [30].

Tennis

Filipas et al. examined tennis stroke performance in professional players following a 30-minute Stroop task. They observed an increase in the percentage of failed second serves from the deuce side (14.9% ± 9.2% – 21.4% ± 9.9%) under mental fatigue conditions. However, no significant differences between the mental fatigue and control groups were found in first and second-serve speed or accuracy [21].

Discussion

The primary objective of this review is to synthesize and evaluate existing literature on how mental fatigue influences racket sports performance. A secondary aim is to explore mediators within the Psychobiological model of endurance performance [12, 22], validating Sun et al.‘s proposition regarding attention as a critical psychobiological factor affected by mental fatigue and influencing subsequent performance [23].

The methods used to induce mental fatigue, including task type and duration, were critically examined. Subjective evaluations and physiological markers were used to confirm the presence of mental fatigue. Secondary factors such as RPE and motivation were considered potential psychobiological indicators of participants’ mental fatigue status [12, 22].

Overall, cognitive tasks lasting over 30 min effectively induced mental fatigue, as evidenced by increased F-VAS scores [19,20,21, 30,31,32]. The F-VAS is validated as a straightforward and reliable measurement of mental fatigue. Smith et al. compared the Brunel Mood Scale, cognitive performance via a 3-minute Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT), and physiological markers like electroencephalography (EEG) and heart rate variability (HRV), concluding that F-VAS is particularly effective for assessing mental fatigue [35].

Mental fatigue detrimentally affected stroke performance in table tennis and tennis [19], perceptual-cognitive performance in table tennis [31], badminton, and padel players [30, 32]. However, it did not impact physical performance metrics such as countermovement jump height and specific tests in badminton players [20]. These findings are consistent with the Psychobiological model of endurance performance [12, 22], which posits that impaired performance correlates with increased RPE due to mental fatigue [12, 22].

While direct measurement of attention was not consistently reported in the reviewed studies, physiological markers such as EEG waves and ERP amplitudes underscored attention’s significance influenced by mental fatigue and subsequent performance outcomes [26, 31].

Mental fatigue intervention

Most of the studies included in this review focused on investigating the impact of mental fatigue on cognitive task performance within a laboratory setting [19,20,21, 31, 32]. The advantage of laboratory-induced mental fatigue lies in its ability to minimize confounding variables that could interfere with the outcomes [19,20,21, 31, 32]. The cognitive tasks employed varied from the Stroop task [20, 21, 30,31,32] to the AX-CPT [19]. Smith et al. compared different cognitive tasks including the Stroop task, AX-CPT, and psychomotor vigilance task, noting that all three tasks effectively induced mental fatigue [35]. They also suggested that tasks requiring response inhibition were particularly effective in inducing sustained mental fatigue compared to simpler cognitive tasks [35]. This finding underscores the importance of using cognitive tasks involving response inhibition in future studies on mental fatigue in racket sports, ensuring participants experience a genuine mental fatigue condition. Additionally, the duration of mental fatigue inducement ranged from 30 min to 90 min, consistent with Sun et al.‘s recommendation of a minimum duration of 30 min for inducing mental fatigue [7, 13, 23, 24]. Thus, successful induction of mental fatigue involving cognitive tasks requiring sustained attention and response inhibition should last no less than 30 min.

In addition to laboratory-induced mental fatigue, there is a growing emphasis on inducing mental fatigue in field contexts [36,37,38]. In real-world scenarios, mental fatigue can vary based on factors such as competition level, type of sport, and individual differences [14]. Examining mental fatigue in field contexts could offer valuable insights for coaches and athletes, aiding in the comprehension of performance declines and the implementation of appropriate strategies to alleviate the effects of mental fatigue on performance. While this review did not encompass observational studies, it is worth noting that Díaz-García et al. explored mental fatigue induced in a field context [39], where padel players encountered consecutive World Padel competitions in a single day, resulting in prolonged reaction times on psychomotor vigilance tasks [39]. This discovery underscores the occurrence of mental fatigue in practical settings and its significance in comprehending performance obstacles within competitive sports environments [39].

Effects of MF on components of performance in racket sports

Mental fatigue on stroke performance of racket players

Mental fatigue adversely affected stroke performance in both table tennis and tennis serving [19, 21]. Mansec et al. conducted the primary investigation into mental fatigue’s impact on table tennis stroke performance, revealing a decrease in elite players’ ball speed (-2.2%) and accuracy (-3.9%), alongside an increase in faults (+ 5.4%) [19]. Given table tennis’s heavy reliance on eye-hand coordination [40], previous research has often categorized this coordination as part of the execution function [41, 42], which was notably impaired by mental fatigue [7]. Duncan et al. highlighted mental fatigue’s detrimental effect on manual dexterity performance [43], reinforcing the understanding that stroke performance suffers due to mental fatigue’s impact on table tennis players’ execution function.

Furthermore, stroke performance in table tennis was evaluated through the serve return, requiring players to concentrate their attention on the ball’s path while suppressing irrelevant distractions [44, 45]. Boksem et al. theorized that individuals experiencing mental fatigue struggle to inhibit automatic attention shifts to irrelevant stimuli [46]. Kok et al. emphasized attention as a pivotal element in cognitive functioning [27]. Given that mental fatigue impairs executive functions such as inhibition and attention [47], limited cognitive resources for attention control could result in decreased stroke performance [26, 27].

Tennis, with its extensive history, serves as the cornerstone for various racket sports, yet limited research has examined mental fatigue’s impact on tennis performance [48, 49]. Filipas et al. instructed the tennis players to 30 min of Stroop tasks to induce mental fatigue [21]. Interestingly, mental fatigue did not alter the accuracy and speed of first and second serves, but it did impair second serve accuracy [21]. As suggested by Filipas et al., executing a serve in tennis demands coordinated whole-body action to maximize power and speed [21]. This finding aligns with Van Cutsem et al.‘s findings, indicating that mental fatigue does not influence maximal strength but does affect second serve accuracy in tennis [8]. Typically, players prioritize power over accuracy for their first serves, adjusting their focus to accuracy for the second serve due to the speed-accuracy trade-off [7, 50]. As a result, tennis players need to allocate more attentional resources to ensure the accuracy of their second serve while maintaining its speed, which might lead to compromised performance in second serve accuracy.

Mental fatigue on perceptual-cognitive performance of racket players

Habay et al. investigated the impact of mental fatigue on table tennis performance, focusing on perceptual-cognitive skills and physiological markers. They subjected table tennis players to a 60-minute Stroop task to induce mental fatigue, which resulted in a 9% increase in reaction time during visuomotor skill performance, indicating performance decline [31]. Visuomotor skills integrate perceptual and cognitive processes with motor behavior, requiring complex cognitive processing of sensory information in context [14, 51]. Mental fatigue among table tennis players led to decreased visuomotor performance, likely due to depleted cognitive resources affecting inhibition processes [23]. Additionally, Habay et al. identified reduced P3b amplitude as an ERP marker, suggesting compromised attention regulation under mental fatigue conditions [31]. Attention resources play a crucial role in performance, as emphasized by Kok et al., who proposed attention as the primary psychobiological factor influencing cognitive performance, with depleted resources resulting in inferior outcomes [27]. Sun et al. illustrated that mental fatigue in soccer players led to declines in decision-making performance, which nature scenes alleviated by restoring direct attention, metaphorically described as “letting effortful attention rest” [23, 24]. This restoration potentially allows more cognitive resources to be allocated to the task, suggesting attention’s inclusion as a significant factor in the Psychobiological model of endurance performance [23].

Mental fatigue’s impact on perceptual-cognitive performance extends beyond table tennis. Van Cutsem et al. reported that mental fatigue impairs the visuomotor performance of badminton players, who exhibited a 7% slower response time compared to controls [32]. This delay in visuomotor performance can be attributed to mental fatigue affecting executive functions and depleting cognitive resources in badminton players, hindering their ability to inhibit irrelevant stimuli and allocate attention effectively [46, 47].

In addition to table tennis and badminton, the perceptual-cognitive performance of padel players has been investigated. Although not included in this review due to study design constraints, Díaz-García et al. found that padel players exhibited increased reaction times on psychomotor vigilance tasks after participating in consecutive world padel tour matches [39], providing insights into mental fatigue in competitive contexts. Future studies exploring mental fatigue in field contexts could provide valuable insights for coaches and athletes. Díaz-García et al. also implemented brain endurance training to mitigate performance decline induced by mental fatigue in padel players, who showed decreased performance on psychomotor vigilance tasks following a 30-minute mental fatigue Stroop task [30]. This decline in cognitive performance reflects mental fatigue impairing padel players’ executive function and depleting their cognitive resources, limiting their ability to exert inhibition and attention on the tasks.

Furthermore, Van Cutsem et al. observed that badminton players demonstrated superior visuomotor performance compared to healthy individuals [32]. Similarly, Díaz-García et al. noted that brain endurance training improved padel players’ shot accuracy and speed even under mental fatigue conditions [30]. Additionally, Martin et al. found that professional cyclists displayed better inhibition abilities compared to recreational cyclists [52]. Sun et al. proposed natural exposure as a strategy to counteract mental fatigue, suggesting that direct attentional efforts and inhibition processes deplete cognitive resources [23, 53, 54]. Through self-control training, players enhanced their inhibition abilities, requiring fewer cognitive resources and thereby minimizing the impact of mental fatigue on subsequent performance [54]. These studies offer valuable insights into strategies for mitigating the effects of mental fatigue on performance, guiding coaches and racket players in selecting effective strategies to combat performance decrements caused by mental fatigue [53].

Mental fatigue on physical performance of racket players

Mental fatigue did not affect the physical performance of countermovement jump height or the duration of badminton-specific tasks among badminton players [20]. Factors such as players’ movement and jump height play crucial roles in determining performance in badminton [55]. A quicker movement to the receiving position enhances the likelihood of scoring points [56], while greater jump height correlates with increased smash velocity and power output [57]. Kosack et al. instructed 19 national elite male badminton players to perform countermovement jumps following a warm-up session [20]. However, no significant difference in physical performance was observed after inducing mental fatigue between the mental fatigue and control groups [20]. This finding is consistent with Van Cutsem et al.‘s research, which showed that mental fatigue unaffected maximal strength [8].

Kosack et al. also assessed badminton performance using a specific test involving ten sets of twenty corner movements, where players swiftly navigated from the central position to designated corners on a computer screen, striking sensors at each corner [20]. Kosack et al. noted that there was no significant difference in the performance of the badminton-specific test between the mental fatigue group and the control group [32]. They indicated that this test primarily assesses badminton-specific fitness, which heavily relies on anaerobic capacity [32]. This finding supports Van Cutsem et al.’s study, suggesting that mental fatigue does not influence badminton players’ maximal strength and anaerobic performance. However, further research examining the effects of mental fatigue on specific skilled performances, such as smash stroke accuracy and speed, would provide valuable insights into its impact on badminton performance.

Psychobiological markers and potential mechanism

Consistent with Marcora et al., mental fatigue did not result in notable changes in physiological markers such as heart rate, lactate levels, and blood glucose concentrations [12]. The Psychobiological model of endurance performance suggests that mental fatigue triggers activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, leading to increased adenosine levels and reduced dopamine transmission. This physiological response heightens racket players’ perception of effort, identified as a primary psychobiological factor influencing performance outcomes [12, 22]. Studies reviewed here support this model, indicating that players experiencing mental fatigue reported heightened perception of effort, which correspondingly impacted performance decline. Future research investigating the effects of mental fatigue on subsequent performance should consider the principles outlined in this Psychobiological model of endurance performance.

Additionally, Sun et al. propose attention as a crucial psychobiological factor to integrate into the model [23]. Drawing from the Strength Model of Self-Control [58], they suggest that players utilize and deplete finite cognitive resources for both cognitive and physical tasks [23, 58, 59]. Depletion of these resources results in an inability to sustain performance, contributing to performance decline induced by mental fatigue [59]. Habay et al. found significant interactions over time and regions of interest (ROI) across upper alpha, lower alpha, and theta bands, indicating that mental fatigue led to reduced power levels in table tennis players [31]. Given the overlap in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) involvement in attention and mental fatigue [25], the noted decrease in alpha and beta power suggests diminished attention [60, 61]. Furthermore, Guo et al. discovered that music mitigated mental fatigue, as evidenced by a substantial decrease in P3 amplitude of ERPs during mental fatigue conditions [26]. This reduction suggests that mental fatigue compromised participants’ ability to allocate attention resources, leading to performance decrements [26].

Meanwhile, Sun et al. proposed that exposure to natural scenes counteracted mental fatigue by restoring directed attention (effortful attention), thereby preserving more cognitive resources to alleviate performance decline [23]. These studies highlight attention as a significant psychobiological factor mediating the relationship between mental fatigue and performance. However, further research is needed to explore and validate this psychobiological factor proposed by Sun et al.

Limitation and future directions

This review encountered several limitations despite an exhaustive search and meticulous methodology. Firstly, the lack of sufficient studies prevented conducting a meta-analysis, underscoring the necessity for more comprehensive investigations to establish robust findings regarding the impact of mental fatigue on racket players’ performance, considering the variability among players. Secondly, the predominant focus on psychomotor performance in the reviewed studies overlooked crucial aspects such as ball speed, accuracy, and spin, which significantly influence competitive outcomes in racket sports. Addressing these performance metrics in future research would provide valuable insights for coaches and athletes, aiding in refining training and competition strategies.

Additionally, including elite players across diverse disciplines could offer a more nuanced understanding of how mental fatigue manifests under intense competitive conditions. This knowledge is crucial for coaches and players in devising effective strategies to mitigate performance decrements attributed to mental fatigue. Moreover, while the aim of this review was to systematically synthesize the effects of mental fatigue on racket sports performance, all included studies investigated mental fatigue induction in laboratory settings, contrary to expectations for field-based investigations. This gap suggests a need for further studies examining field-based mental fatigue induction to draw more relevant conclusions for practical contexts.

Furthermore, future studies employing subjective measurements of mental fatigue should ensure participants are informed about its definition [35], as prior knowledge may mitigate confounding factors such as boredom affecting subjective evaluations of mental fatigue [62, 63]. Lastly, additional research is warranted to explore the underlying mechanisms of mental fatigue, particularly the role of attention as a significant but currently underexplored psychobiological factor, as suggested by Sun et al. Investigating these comprehensive mechanisms linking mental fatigue and performance could facilitate targeted strategies to mitigate its effects and thereby counteract performance decrements.

Conclusion

Mental fatigue has been demonstrated to negatively impact perceptual-cognitive performance, particularly in visuomotor reaction time among badminton and table tennis players, as well as reaction time in psychomotor vigilance tasks among padel players. Additionally, mental fatigue impairs stroke performance, notably affecting ball speed and accuracy in table tennis, and decreasing accuracy in the second serve of tennis players. However, mental fatigue did not significantly influence first and second serve speeds in tennis, first serve accuracy in tennis, or countermovement jump height and shuttle run performance in badminton players. These findings underscore the detrimental effects of mental fatigue on performance in racket sports, emphasizing the need for coaches and practitioners to address and mitigate its impact proactively.

Strategies to counteract mental fatigue and subsequent performance decrements should be actively pursued. The Psychobiological model of endurance performance provides a promising framework for future investigations in this area. Furthermore, insights from physiological markers such as EEG waves and ERP amplitudes, as suggested by Sun et al., highlight attention as a significant psychobiological factor influencing these effects. Integrating attention into the Psychobiological model of endurance performance could enhance understanding of the complex relationship between mental fatigue and sports performance. However, comprehensive research is necessary to fully elucidate this intricate mechanism.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

References

  1. Patole S, Pawale D, Rath C. Interventions for Compassion fatigue in Healthcare Providers—A systematic review of Randomised controlled trials. In: Healthcare. MDPI; 2024. p. 171.

  2. Caldwell JA, Caldwell JL, Thompson LA, Lieberman HR. Fatigue and its management in the workplace. Neurosci Biobehavioral Reviews. 2019;96:272–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Juárez-Belaúnde A, Orcajo E, Lejarreta S, Davila-Pérez P, León N, Oliviero A. Fatigue in patients with acquired brain damage. Neurología (English Edition). 2024.

  4. Pageaux B, Lepers R. Fatigue induced by physical and mental exertion increases perception of effort and impairs subsequent endurance performance. Front Physiol. 2016;7:587.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Dotan R, Woods S, Contessa P. On the reliability and validity of central fatigue determination. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2021;121:2393–411.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Weir JP, Beck TW, Cramer JT, Housh TJ. Is fatigue all in your head? A critical review of the central governor model. Br J Sports Med. 2006;40:573–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Sun H, Soh KG, Roslan S, Wazir MRWN, Soh KL. Does mental fatigue affect skilled performance in athletes? A systematic review. PLoS ONE. 2021;16:e0258307.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Van Cutsem J, Marcora S, De Pauw K, Bailey S, Meeusen R, Roelands B. The effects of Mental fatigue on physical performance: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2017;47:1569–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Ricci JA, Chee E, Lorandeau AL, Berger J. Fatigue in the US workforce: prevalence and implications for lost productive work time. J Occup Environ Med. 2007;49:1–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Alonso F, Esteban C, Useche SA, López de Cózar E. Prevalence of physical and mental fatigue symptoms on Spanish drivers and its incidence on driving safety. Adv Psychol Neurosci. 2016;1:10–8.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Smith A. Cognitive fatigue and the wellbeing and academic attainment of university students. J Educ Soc Behav Sci. 2018;24:1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Marcora SM, Staiano W, Manning V. Mental fatigue impairs physical performance in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2009;106:857–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Sun H, Soh KG, Mohammadi A, Wang X, Bin Z, Zhao Z. Effects of mental fatigue on technical performance in soccer players: a systematic review with a meta-analysis. Front Public Health. 2022;10:922630.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Habay J, Van Cutsem J, Verschueren J, De Bock S, Proost M, De Wachter J, et al. Mental fatigue and Sport-Specific Psychomotor performance: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2021;51:1527–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Lees A. Science and the major racket sports: a review. J Sports Sci. 2003;21:707–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Tran Y, Craig A, Craig R, Chai R, Nguyen H. The influence of mental fatigue on brain activity: evidence from a systematic review with meta-analyses. Psychophysiology. 2020;57:e13554.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Mizuno K, Tanaka M, Yamaguti K, Kajimoto O, Kuratsune H, Watanabe Y. Mental fatigue caused by prolonged cognitive load associated with sympathetic hyperactivity. Behav Brain Funct. 2011;7:17.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Noé F, Hachard B, Ceyte H, Bru N, Paillard T. Relationship between the level of mental fatigue induced by a prolonged cognitive task and the degree of balance disturbance. Exp Brain Res. 2021;239:2273–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Le Mansec Y, Pageaux B, Nordez A, Dorel S, Jubeau M. Mental fatigue alters the speed and the accuracy of the ball in table tennis. J Sports Sci. 2018;36:2751–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Kosack MH, Staiano W, Folino R, Hansen MB, Lønbro S. The acute effect of mental fatigue on badminton performance in elite players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2020;15:632–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Filipas L, Rossi C, Codella R, Bonato M. Mental fatigue impairs second serve accuracy in Tennis players. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2023;:1–7.

  22. Martin K, Meeusen R, Thompson KG, Keegan R, Rattray B. Mental fatigue impairs endurance performance: a physiological explanation. Sports Med. 2018;48:2041–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Sun H, Soh KG, Roslan S, Wazir MRWN, Mohammadi A, Ding C, et al. Nature exposure might be the intervention to improve the self-regulation and skilled performance in mentally fatigue athletes: a narrative review and conceptual framework. Front Psychol. 2022;13:941299.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Sun H, Soh KG, Xu X. Nature scenes counter mental fatigue-induced performance decrements in soccer decision-making. Front Psychol. 2022;13:877844.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Davis KD, Hutchison WD, Lozano AM, Tasker RR, Dostrovsky JO. Human anterior cingulate cortex neurons modulated by attention-demanding tasks. J Neurophysiol. 2000;83:3575–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Guo W, Ren J, Wang B, Zhu Q. Effects of relaxing music on mental fatigue induced by a continuous performance task: behavioral and ERPs evidence. PLoS ONE. 2015;10:e0136446.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Kok A. Event-related-potential (ERP) reflections of mental resources: a review and synthesis. Biol Psychol. 1997;45:19–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Group PRISMA-P, Moher D, Shamseer L, Clarke M, Ghersi D, Liberati A, et al. Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Syst Rev. 2015;4:1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Amir-Behghadami M, Janati A, Population. Intervention, comparison, outcomes and study (PICOS) design as a framework to formulate eligibility criteria in systematic reviews. Emerg Med J. 2020.

  30. Díaz-García J, García-Calvo T, Manzano-Rodríguez D, López-Gajardo MÁ, Parraca JA, Ring C. Brain endurance training improves shot speed and accuracy in grassroots padel players. J Sci Med Sport. 2023;26:386–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Habay J, Proost M, De Wachter J, Díaz-García J, De Pauw K, Meeusen R, et al. Mental fatigue-associated decrease in table tennis performance: is there an electrophysiological signature? Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18:12906.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Van Cutsem J, De Pauw K, Vandervaeren C, Marcora S, Meeusen R, Roelands B. Mental fatigue impairs visuomotor response time in badminton players and controls. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2019;45:101579.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Ferreira A, Górski M, Gajewski J. Gender differences and relationships between upper extremity muscle strength, lower limb power and shuttle velocity in forehand smash and jump smash in badminton. Acta Bioeng Biomech. 2020;22.

  34. Fröhlich M, Felder H, Reuter M. Training effects of plyometric training on jump parameters in D-and D/C-squad badminton players. J Sports Res. 2014;1:22–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Smith MR, Chai R, Nguyen HT, Marcora SM, Coutts AJ. Comparing the effects of three cognitive tasks on indicators of Mental fatigue. J Psychol. 2019;153:759–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Smith MR, Thompson C, Marcora SM, Skorski S, Meyer T, Coutts AJ. Mental fatigue and Soccer: current knowledge and future directions. Sports Med. 2018;48:1525–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. O’Keeffe K, Hodder S, Lloyd A. A comparison of methods used for inducing mental fatigue in performance research: individualised, dual-task and short duration cognitive tests are most effective. Ergonomics. 2020;63:1–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Thompson CJ, Fransen J, Skorski S, Smith MR, Meyer T, Barrett S, et al. Mental fatigue in football: is it time to Shift the goalposts? An evaluation of the current methodology. Sports Med. 2019;49:177–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Díaz-García J, González-Ponce I, López-Gajardo MÁ, Van Cutsem J, Roelands B, García-Calvo T. How mentally fatiguing are consecutive world padel tour matches? Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18:9059.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Paul M, Biswas SK, Sandhu JS. Role of sports vision and eye hand coordination training in performance of table tennis players. Brazilian J Biomotricity. 2011;5:106–16.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Faber IR, Pion J, Willemse B, Schipper W, Nijhuis-Van der Sanden M. Is the level of eye-hand coordination and executive functioning related to performance in para table tennis players?–An explorative study. Int J Racket Sports Sci. 2019;1:45–60.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Wuang Y-P, Tsai H-Y, Wang C-C, Chen M-D. The effectiveness of racket-sport intervention on visual perception and executive functions in children with mild intellectual disabilities and borderline intellectual functioning. NDT. 2015;:2287.

  43. Duncan MJ, Fowler N, George O, Joyce S, Hankey J. Mental fatigue negatively influences manual dexterity and anticipation timing but not repeated high-intensity Exercise performance in trained adults. Res Sports Med. 2015;23:1–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Hopstaken JF, Van Der Linden D, Bakker AB, Kompier MA, Leung YK. Shifts in attention during mental fatigue: evidence from subjective, behavioral, physiological, and eye-tracking data. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2016;42:878.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Csathó Á, Van Der Linden D, Hernádi I, Buzás P, Kalmár G. Effects of mental fatigue on the capacity limits of visual attention. J Cogn Psychol. 2012;24:511–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Boksem MA, Meijman TF, Lorist MM. Effects of mental fatigue on attention: an ERP study. Cogn Brain Res. 2005;25:107–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Guo Z, Chen R, Liu X, Zhao G, Zheng Y, Gong M, et al. The impairing effects of mental fatigue on response inhibition: an ERP study. PLoS ONE. 2018;13:e0198206.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Borisova OV. Tennis: history and the present. Pedagogics, psychology, medical-biological problems of physical training and sports. 2012;:119–24.

  49. Jayanthi N, Esser S. Racket sports. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2013;12:329–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Keller M, Kuhn Y-A, Lüthy F, Taube W. How to serve faster in tennis: the influence of an altered focus of attention and augmented feedback on service speed in elite players. J Strength Conditioning Res. 2021;35:1119–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Casanova F, Oliveira J, Williams M, Garganta J. Expertise and perceptual-cognitive performance in soccer: a review. Revista Portuguesa De Ciencias do Desporto. 2009;9:115–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Martin K, Staiano W, Menaspà P, Hennessey T, Marcora S, Keegan R, et al. Superior inhibitory control and resistance to mental fatigue in professional road cyclists. PLoS ONE. 2016;11:e0159907.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Proost M, Habay J, De Wachter J, De Pauw K, Rattray B, Meeusen R, et al. How to Tackle Mental fatigue: a systematic review of potential countermeasures and their underlying mechanisms. Sports Med. 2022;52:2129–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Sun H, Soh KG, Norjali Wazir MRW, Ding C, Xu T, Zhang D. Can self-regulatory strength training counter prior mental exertion? A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Front Public Health. 2022;10:904374.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Ozmen T, Aydogmus M. Effect of plyometric training on jumping performance and agility in adolescent badminton players. Turkish J Sport Exerc. 2017;19:222–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Seth B. Determination factors of badminton game performance. Int J Phys Educ Sports Health. 2016;3:20–2.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Asif M, Zutshi K, Munjal J, Dhingra M. Relationship among height, explosive power and shoulder strength on smashing accuracy in male badminton players. Eur J Phys Educ Sport Sci. 2018.

  58. Baumeister RF, Vohs KD, Tice DM. The Strength Model of Self-Control. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2007;16:351–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Hagger MS, Wood C, Stiff C, Chatzisarantis NL. Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull. 2010;136:495.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Magosso E, Ricci G, Ursino M. Alpha and theta mechanisms operating in internal-external attention competition. J Integr Neurosci. 2021;20:1–19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Klimesch W, Doppelmayr M, Russegger H, Pachinger T, Schwaiger J. Induced alpha band power changes in the human EEG and attention. Neurosci Lett. 1998;244:73–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Westgate EC, Wilson TD. Boring thoughts and bored minds: the MAC model of boredom and cognitive engagement. Psychol Rev. 2018;125:689.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Filipas L, Borghi S, La Torre A, Smith MR. Effects of mental fatigue on soccer-specific performance in young players. Sci Med Footb. 2021;5:150–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We extend our sincere gratitude to all the colleagues at Jiangsu Food and Pharmaceutical Science College and the individuals at University Putra Malaysia for their invaluable assistance and support in completing this research.

Funding

This study received no external funding.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Education Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

    Cong Ding, Kim Geok Soh, Samsilah Roslan, Shudian Cao & Yue Zhao

  2. Department of Sport Studies, Faculty of General Education Studies, Jiangsu Food and Pharmaceutical Science College, Huaian, Jiangsu, China

    Cong Ding

  3. School of Physical Education, Henan University, Kaifeng, China

    He Sun

Authors
  1. Cong Ding
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kim Geok Soh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. He Sun
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Samsilah Roslan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Shudian Cao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Yue Zhao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

DC, HS, KGS and SR conceptualised the review, created aims and established inclusion and exclusion criteria. DC SDC and YZ conducted the database searches and all screening in accordance with the inclusion criteria. DC performed assessment for the risk of bias with HS and KGS and wrote the initial draft. KGS and HS supervised the study and contributed to analysis. SR, SDC and YZ contributed to reviewing and editing. All authors were involved in interpreting the data, critically revising the manuscript, and approve the final version for publication.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Cong Ding or Kim Geok Soh.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ding, C., Soh, K.G., Sun, H. et al. Does mental fatigue affect performance in racket sports? A systematic review. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 16, 179 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-024-00963-w

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-024-00963-w

Keywords

BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation

ISSN: 2052-1847

Contact us